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The causes of World War I have been discussed in great detail in many publications. Most agree that the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand was the final piece of the complex puzzle, but there were other factors that contributed to the outbreak of war. James John uses the approach of starting from the assassination and building layers of other possible factors around it, while Joachim Read gives us a timeline approach to the events leading up to the murder. Bismarck, the German Chancellor from 1871 to 1890, started the alliance system.
After the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck held that Germany was a satiated state that should give up ideas of further conquest. Thus Bismarck organized a system of alliances designed to maintain Germany's hegemony on the European continent. France was determined to challenge the hegemony of Germany because France had been defeated by Germany in 1871 and had been forced to cede two provinces (Alsace-Lorraine) to Germany. Bismarck tried to befriend Austria, Russia, Italy and Britain in order to isolate France. Bismarck's succeeded in forming the League of the Three Emperors (1872) with partners of Kaiser William I of Germany, Czar Alexander II of Russia and Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. These three rulers agreed to maintain the existing territorial arrangements in Europe, resist the spread of revolutionary (e.
g. socialist) movements, and to consult one another if any international difficulties arose. France was being diplomatically isolated. But the underlying weakness of this personal understanding between the three emperors was the rivalry between Austria and Russia over the Balkan Peninsula, both sought to dominate the Balkans.
Rivalry between Austria and Russia in the Balkans came to a head in 1877 - 78. In 1875, five Balkan states revolted against the Turkish rule. Russia supported the Balkan states and defeated Turkey. The Turks had little choice but to ask for peace 1 and on March 8, 1878, Turkey was forced to sign the Treaty of San Stefano, in which an independent, Big Bulgaria was created. Seeing that this Bulgaria would be a Russian puppet, Austria intervened, supported by Britain, the traditional rival of Russia in the eastern Mediterranean. Bismarck volunteered to act as a mediator and called the Congress of Berlin to settle the Balkan problems.
At this Congress, Germany sided with Austria and Britain. Russia had to give up the Treaty of San Stefano and sign the Treaty of Berlin. The Treaty split Bulgaria into three parts (Bulgarian Proper was to be independent, Eastern Rumelia and Macedonia were to be ruled under Turkish sovereignty) and brought Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian military occupation (but not annexation). Russia felt diplomatically humiliated.
The anger of Russia turned against Bismarck because he chaired the Congress. Forced to make the next move 2 and unable to maintain friendly relations with both Austria and Russia, Bismarck chose Austria to be his ally because Germany preferred a weaker partner which could be more easily controlled an alliance with Austria would throw open the Danube valley to German trade, Austria had racial ties with Germany, such an alliance would enable Germany to exercise influence in the Balkans, and finally an alliance with Russia would antagonize Britain, as Britain did not like her colonial rival to be supported by a strong power. On October 7, 1879 Bismarck made the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary. Both sides agreed to support the other militarily until the end of the war if attacked by Russia or by Russia and another power and to remain neutral if her ally was attacked by a power other than Russia. The Dual Alliance gave Germany a firm military ally but committed her more to the support of Austrian interests in the Balkans. In the meantime, Bismarck still wanted to keep the friendship of Russia for fear that Russia would turn to the side of France, in which case Germany would face an enemy on both east and west.
Bismarck still wanted to keep Russian friendship after the signing of Dual Alliance (1879) with Austria. The year 1881 was particularly favorable for the restoration of the League of the three conservative Emperors. In that year, Czar Alexander III ascended the Russian throne after the assassination of Alexander II. The fate of his father made Alexander III ready for a renewal of the Three Emperors' League of 1872, which promised to suppress the revolutionary movements. The League agreed to the terms that the Balkans were to be divided into two spheres of influence, the western Balkans (Bosnia and Herzegovina) belonged to Austria and the eastern Balkans (Bulgaria) belonged to Russia, the three Emperors agreed to consult one another if there was another Balkan crisis, and the three Emperors agreed to preserve benevolent neutrality if any one of them were to find itself at war with a fourth power 3.
The League could not last long because Austria and Russia would soon rival over the Balkan Peninsula again. Bismarck had tactfully encouraged France to expand overseas in the hope of diverting her attention away from Alsace-Lorraine. French annexation of Tunis in northern Africa in 1881 alienated Italy, which was ambitious to build up an Italian empire in Africa. Italy was thus driven into Bismarck's camp in anger. The terms of the alliance were if Italy or Germany was attacked by France, each would aid the other; if Austria was attacked by Russia, Italy would remain neutral, although Austria would aid Italy if she was attacked by France; if one of the parties was attacked by two or more powers, the other signatories were to come to her aid; and at Italy's request, both Austria and Germany agreed that in no case would the Treaty operate against Britain.
The position of Italy in the Triple Alliance seemed to be rather dubious. It was because the reasons that had impelled Italy to join the Triple Alliance were no longer important. By 1900, the Italians had resigned themselves to the loss of Tunis. They wanted to conquer Tripoli with French support. Moreover, by 1900, Italy needed not fear any attempt by the French monarchist-clericals to intervene in her domestic politics on behalf of the Pope as the republicans had secured power in France. Thus, in 1900, a secret arrangement was concluded between France and Italy: France was given a free hand in Morocco, Italy in Tripoli.
In 1902, another secret agreement was made between France and Italy: each promised to be neutral if either was provoked into declaring war on a third power. This ran contrary to the terms of the Triple Alliance, by which Italy promised to aid Germany in case of a Franco-German war. By 1909 Italy made her Racconigi Agreement with Russia. By this Italy would remain neutral in any Russian attempt to regain the control of the Straits and Constantinople in return for Russian diplomatic support for the Italian conquest of Tripoli.
These Italian agreements made the Triple Alliance almost null and void. By this time, a powerful bloc had been formed in central Europe. Germany was now guaranteed against Russia by Austria, and against France by Italy. Bismarck had successfully kept the friendship of Russia, Austria and Italy and kept France completely isolated. He was a skilful diplomat who was able to handle the European powers for Germany's advantage and as he said All politics reduces itself to this formula: Try to be a trios as long as the world is governed by the unstable equilibrium of five Great Powers 4.
Yet Italy's commitment to the Triple Alliance was doubtful because the archenemy of Italian unity had been Austria, while France was the friend of Italian unity. Once Italy's anger over Tunis cooled off, she would prefer an alliance with France to that with Austria. According to the terms of the Second Three Emperors' League, Bulgaria was recognized as a Russian sphere of influence The Bulgarians were experiencing an awakening of national self-consciousness and did not want to be dominated by the Russians. In 1885, in defiance of the Treaty of Berlin, the Bulgarians united Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia. Russia objected to the emergence of a large anti-Russian state but Austria and Britain gave their recognition to the union of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia. Russia hated the Austrians for breaking the terms of the Second Three Emperors League and allowed the League to lapse in 1887.
Bismarck secretly made a treaty with Russia without informing Austria where Russia and Germany would observe neutrality towards each other if either became involved in war with a third power, except if Germany attacked France or if Russia attacked Austria-Hungary. By making this treaty, Bismarck had been able to prevent his nightmare, a two front war, from being realized. Bismarck was a skillful diplomat. For twenty years, he made Germany the center of the diplomatic stage. France was kept isolated, but Austria, Russia, Italy and Britain were on friendly terms with Germany. Bismarck's alliances were non-aggressive and kept Europe at peace.
Yet after 1890, Bismarck fell from power because the new Kaiser, William II, found it understandably difficult to get along with a national monument for a chancellor 5. The new Kaiser took matters into his own hands rejecting the idea that Germany was a satisfied state; he wanted to make Germany not only a European power but also a world power. He advocated Drang nach Osten (the drive eastwards into the Balkans and Middle East), colonial expansion and naval expansion. He was also influenced by Pan-German feelings to support Austria's expansionist policy in the Balkans and to pursue his ambitions, he often adopted blackmailing, threats and other unpopular methods. From 1890 to 1907, he succeeded in alienating Britain, France and Russia, and thus helped to create a rival bloc of anti-German alliances. When William II came to hold absolute power in Germany, he thought, since war was inevitable sooner or later 6 with Russia, he allowed the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse.
He stressed Germany's political and military ties with Austria instead. Such a policy, together with the growing Pan-Germanism, aroused strong Russian suspicion. Russia naturally turned to the side of France, which was the irreconcilable enemy of Germany. Although at first there seemed little possibility for Czarist Russia to ally with Republican France, two factors made such an alliance possible, the French government impressed upon Russians the desirability of cooperating against the common enemy, Germany 7 and France had floated several huge loans to help Russia to industrialize. The terms of the alliance were if France was attacked by Germany or Germany and her ally (Italy), Russia would aid France, in return, if Russia was attacked by Germany or Germany and her ally (Austria), France would aid Russia, if one or more members of the Triple Alliance mobilized, they would mobilize to help one another automatically, and this agreement would continue as long as the Triple Alliance was in force. The Dual Alliance ended the isolation of France, created a rival alliance to the Triple Alliance, and, most serious of all, faced Germany with the threat of a two front war.
But William II failed to sense the danger at the time. He was contented to have Austria as an ally and continued his drive for power and prestige. After the formation of the Franco-Russian Alliance, Britain found herself diplomatically isolated. Throughout the 19 th century, she had followed the policy of isolation and avoided all involvement in European affairs. But by the late 19 th century, some British leaders, notably Joseph Chamberlain, the Colonial Secretary, were beginning to think that Britain might have to abandon the policy of isolation 8, for she could no longer command respect in world politics. This was illustrated by three incidents.
In 1895, the Continental Group forced Japan to hand back Liaotung Peninsula to China. Britain was excluded was excluded from the decision making process and the Continental Group. In 1896, Dr. Jameson, encouraged and supported by the British Prime Minister of the Cape Colony, organized a raid into the Dutch Republic of Transvaal in South Africa.
The raid failed, and Dr. Jameson and the raiders were captured by the Dutch (Boers). Public opinion in most of the European countries was strongly anti-British. Kaiser William II approved of the Dutch efforts by sending the famous 'Kruger Telegram' to President Kruger of Transvaal.
The European reactions to the Jameson Raid suggested that Britain had no diplomatic support in Europe. Finally, between 1893 and 1898, in Armenia, the Turkish Sultan slaughtered thousands of his Christian subjects; Britain's suggestion of sending a navy to the Armenian shore to rescue the Christians went unheeded. Britain at first sought to make some sort of alliance with Germany, but she failed...
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Research essay sample on 19 Th Century Triple Alliance
